A walnut is the edible seed of any tree of the genus Juglans (family Juglandaceae), particularly the Persian or English walnut, Juglans regia. They are accessory fruit because the outer covering of the fruit is technically an involucre and thus not morphologically part of the carpel; this means it cannot be a drupe but is instead a drupe-like nut.
After full ripening, the shell is discarded, and the kernel is eaten. Nuts of the eastern black walnut (Juglans nigra) and butternuts (Juglans cinerea) are less commonly consumed.
Walnuts are the round, single-seed stone fruits of the walnut tree. They ripen between September and November in the northern hemisphere. The brown, wrinkly walnut shell is enclosed in a husk.[1] Shells of walnuts available in commerce usually have two segments (but three or four-segment shells can also form). During the ripening process, the husk becomes brittle and the shell hard. The shell encloses the kernel or meat, which is usually in two halves separated by a membranous partition.[1] The seed kernels – commonly available as shelled walnuts – are enclosed in a brown seed coat which contains antioxidants. The antioxidants protect the oil-rich seed from atmospheric oxygen, preventing rancidity.[2]
Inside of a walnut in growthArtistic depiction of two walnuts (Adriaen Coorte, 1702)
Walnut trees are late to grow leaves, typically not doing so until more than halfway through the spring.
The three species of walnuts most commonly grown for their seeds are the Persian (or English) walnut (J. regia), originating from Iran, the black walnut (J. nigra) – native to eastern North America – and the Japanese walnut, also known as the heartnut (J. ailantifolia).[6] Other species include J. californica, the California black walnut (often used as a rootstock for commercial propagation of J. regia), J. cinerea (butternuts), and J. major, the Arizona walnut. Other sources list J. californica californica as native to southern California, and Juglans californica hindsii, or just J. hindsii, as native to northern California; in at least one case, these are given as “geographic variants” instead of subspecies (Botanica).[citation needed]
Three-segment walnut
Numerous walnut cultivars have been developed commercially, which are nearly all hybrids of the English walnut.[7]
During the Byzantine era, the walnut was also known by the name “royal nut”.[8] An article on walnut tree cultivation in Spain is included in Ibn al-‘Awwam‘s 12th-century Book on Agriculture.[9] The wal element in the name is Germanic and means foreign, especially in the sense of Latin or non-Germanic. Compare, for example, Wales, Walloons, Wallachia. The wal element is present in other Germanic-language words for the same nut, such as: German Walnuss, Dutch walnoot, Danish valnød, and Swedish valnöt.
Walnuts, like other tree nuts, must be processed and stored properly. Poor storage makes walnuts susceptible to insect and fungal mold infestations; the latter produces aflatoxin – a potent carcinogen. A batch that contains mold-infested walnuts should be entirely discarded.[2]
Walnut shell inside its green husk
The ideal temperature for the extended storage of walnuts is −3 to 0 °C (27 to 32 °F) with low humidity for industrial and home storage. However, such refrigeration technologies are unavailable in developing countries where walnuts are produced in large quantities; walnuts are best stored below 25 °C (77 °F) with low humidity. Temperatures above 30 °C (86 °F) and humidity levels above 70 percent can lead to rapid and high spoilage losses. Above 75 percent humidity threshold, fungal molds that release aflatoxin can form.[2][10]
In 2022, world production of walnuts (in shell) was 3.9 million tonnes, with China contributing 36% of the total (table). Other significant producers (in the order of decreasing harvest) were the United States, Iran, and Turkey.[15]
English walnuts without shells are 4% water, 15% protein, 65% fat, and 14% carbohydrates, including 7% dietary fiber (table). In a reference amount of 100 g (3.5 oz), walnuts provide 654 kilocalories (2,740 kJ) and rich contents (20% or more of the Daily Value, DV) of several dietary minerals, particularly manganese at 148% DV, along with significant amounts of B vitamins (table).
In 2004, the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) provided a qualified health claim allowing products containing walnuts to state: “Supportive but not conclusive research shows that eating 1.5 ounces (43 g) per day of walnuts, as part of a low saturated fat and low cholesterol diet and not resulting in increased caloric intake, may reduce the risk of coronary heart disease.”[18] At the same time, the agency refused to authorize the claim that “Diets including walnuts can reduce the risk of heart disease”[19] and in 2010, it sent a warning letter to Diamond Foods stating there is “not sufficient evidence to identify a biologically active substance in walnuts that reduces the risk of coronary heart disease.”[20]
Walnuts in their shells available for sale in a supermarket in the United States
Walnut meats are available in two forms: in their shells or de-shelled. Due to processing, the meats may be whole, halved, or in smaller portions. All walnuts can be eaten on their own (raw, toasted, or pickled), or as part of a mix such as muesli, or as an ingredient of a dish: e.g. walnut soup, walnut pie, walnut coffee cake, banana cake, brownie, fudge. Walnuts are often candied or pickled. Pickled walnuts that are the whole fruit can be savory or sweet depending on the preserving solution.
Walnut husks can be used to make durable ink for writing and drawing. It is thought to have been used by artists including Leonardo da Vinci and Rembrandt.[28]
The US Army once used ground walnut shells for abrasive blasting to clean aviation parts because of low cost and low abrasive qualities. However, an investigation of a fatal Boeing CH-47 Chinook helicopter crash (11 September 1982, in Mannheim, Germany) revealed that walnut shell grit had clogged an oil port, leading to the accident and the discontinuation of walnut shells as a cleaning agent.[31]
Commercially, crushed walnut shells are still used outside of aviation for low-abrasive, less-toxic cleaning and blasting applications.[32] In the oil and gas industry, deep bed filters of ground walnut shell are used for “polishing” (filtering) oily contaminates from water.[33]
At least two companies, LitterMaid and Naturally Fresh, make cat litter from ground walnut shells.[34][35] Advantages cited over conventional clay litter include environmental sustainability of using what would otherwise be a waste product, superior natural biodegradability, and odor control as good or better than clay litter.[36] Disadvantages include the possibility of allergic reactions among humans and cats.[37]
Walnuts have been listed as one of the 38 substances used to prepare Bach flower remedies,[38] a herbal remedy promoted in folk medicine practices for its supposed effect on health. According to Cancer Research UK, “there is no scientific evidence to prove that flower remedies can control, cure or prevent any type of disease, including cancer”.[39]
Large, symmetrically shaped, and sometimes intricately carved walnut shells (mainly from J. hopeiensis) are valued collectibles in China where they are rotated in hand as a plaything or as decoration. They are also an investment and status symbol, with some carvings having high monetary value if unique.[40] Pairs of walnuts are sometimes sold in their green husks for a form of gambling known as du qing pi.[41]
The almond (Prunus amygdalus, syn.Prunus dulcis) is a species of tree from the genus Prunus. Along with the peach, it is classified in the subgenus Amygdalus, distinguished from the other subgenera by corrugations on the shell (endocarp) surrounding the seed.[3]
The fruit of the almond is a drupe, consisting of an outer hull and a hard shell with the seed, which is not a true nut.[4]Shelling almonds refers to removing the shell to reveal the seed. Almonds are sold shelled or unshelled. Blanched almonds are shelled almonds that have been treated with hot water to soften the seedcoat, which is then removed to reveal the white embryo. Once almonds are cleaned and processed, they can be stored for around a year if kept refrigerated; at higher temperatures they will become rancid more quickly.[5] Almonds are used in many cuisines, often featuring prominently in desserts, such as marzipan.[4]
The almond tree prospers in a moderate Mediterranean climate with cool winter weather.[4] It is rarely found wild in its original setting.[6] Almonds were one of the earliest domesticated fruit trees, due to the ability to produce quality offspring entirely from seed, without using suckers and cuttings. Evidence of domesticated almonds in the Early Bronze Age has been found in the archeological sites of the Middle East, and subsequently across the Mediterranean region and similar arid climates with cool winters.
California produces about 80% of the world’s almond supply.[4] Due to high acreage and water demand for almond cultivation, and need for pesticides, California almond production may be unsustainable, especially during the persistent drought and heat from climate change in the 21st century.[7]Droughts in California have caused some producers to leave the industry, leading to lower supply and increased prices.[7]
Description
The almond is a deciduous tree growing to 3–4.5 metres (10–15 feet) in height,[4][8] with a trunk of up to 30 centimetres (12 inches) in diameter. The young twigs are green at first, becoming purplish where exposed to sunlight, then grey in their second year. The leaves are 8–13 cm (3–5 in) long,[9] with a serrated margin and a 2.5 cm (1 in) petiole.
The fragrant flowers are white to pale pink, 3–5 cm (1–2 in) diameter with five petals, produced singly or in pairs and appearing before the leaves in early spring.[4][10][11] Almond trees thrive in Mediterranean climates with warm, dry summers and mild, wet winters.[4] The optimal temperature for their growth is between 15 and 30 °C (59 and 86 °F) and the tree buds have a chilling requirement of 200 to 700 hours below 7.2 °C (45.0 °F) to break dormancy.[12]
Almonds begin bearing an economic crop in the third year after planting. Trees reach full bearing five to six years after planting. The fruit matures in the autumn, 7–8 months after flowering.[11][13]
The almond fruit is 3.5–6 cm (1+3⁄8–2+3⁄8 in) long. It is not a nut but a drupe. The outer covering, consisting of an outer exocarp, or skin, and mesocarp, or flesh, fleshy in other members of Prunus such as the plum and cherry, is instead a thick, leathery, grey-green coat (with a downy exterior), called the hull. Inside the hull is a woody endocarp which forms a reticulated, hard shell (like the outside of a peach pit) called the pyrena. Inside the shell is the edible seed, commonly called a nut.[4] Generally, one seed is present, but occasionally two occur. After the fruit matures, the hull splits and separates from the shell, and an abscission layer forms between the stem and the fruit so that the fruit can fall from the tree.[14] During harvest, mechanised tree shakers are used to expedite fruits falling to the ground for collection.[4]
The seeds of Prunus dulcis var. dulcis are predominantly sweet[15][16] but some individual trees produce seeds that are somewhat more bitter.[4] The genetic basis for bitterness involves a single gene, the bitter flavour furthermore being recessive,[17][18] both aspects making this trait easier to domesticate. The fruits from Prunus dulcis var. amara are always bitter, as are the kernels from other species of genus Prunus, such as apricot, peach and cherry (although to a lesser extent).
The bitter almond is slightly broader and shorter than the sweet almond and contains about 50% of the fixed oil that occurs in sweet almonds. It also contains the enzyme emulsin which, in the presence of water, acts on the two solubleglucosidesamygdalin and prunasin[19] yielding glucose, cyanide and the essential oil of bitter almonds, which is nearly pure benzaldehyde, the chemical causing the bitter flavour. Bitter almonds may yield 4–9 milligrams of hydrogen cyanide per almond[20] and contain 42 times higher amounts of cyanide than the trace levels found in sweet almonds.[21] The origin of cyanide content in bitter almonds is via the enzymatic hydrolysis of amygdalin.[21]P450monooxygenases are involved in the amygdalin biosynthetic pathway. A point mutation in a bHLHtranscription factor prevents transcription of the two cytochrome P450 genes, resulting in the sweet kernel trait.[22]
The adjective amygdaloid (literally ‘like an almond, almond-like’) is used to describe objects which are roughly almond-shaped, particularly a shape which is part way between a triangle and an ellipse. For example, the amygdala of the brain uses a direct borrowing of the Greek term amygdalē.[26]
Origin and distribution
The precise origin of the almond is controversial due to estimates for its emergence across wide geographic regions.[27] Sources indicate that its origins were in an area stretching across Central Asia, Iran, Turkmenistan, Tajikistan, Kurdistan, Afghanistan, and Iraq,[27][28] or in an eastern Asian subregion between Mongolia and Uzbekistan.[27][29] In other assessments, both botanical and archaeological evidence indicates that almonds originated and were first cultivated in West Asia, particularly in countries of the Levant.[6][28] Other estimates specified Iran and Anatolia (present day Turkey) as origin locations of the almond, with botanical evidence for Iran as the main origin centre.[27][30]
The wild form of domesticated almond also grew in parts of the Levant.[28][30][31] Almond cultivation was spread by humans centuries ago along the shores of the Mediterranean Sea into northern Africa and southern Europe,[28][29] and more recently to other world regions, notably California.[4][32]
Selection of the sweet type from the many bitter types in the wild marked the beginning of almond domestication.[6][33] The wild ancestor of the almond used to breed the domesticated species is unknown.[6][33] The species Prunus fenzliana may be the most likely wild ancestor of the almond, in part because it is native to Armenia and western Azerbaijan, where it was apparently domesticated.[6][28] Wild almond species were grown by early farmers, “at first unintentionally in the garbage heaps, and later intentionally in their orchards”.[34]
Almonds were one of the earliest domesticated fruit trees, due to “the ability of the grower to raise attractive almonds from seed.[6] Thus, in spite of the fact that this plant does not lend itself to propagation from suckers or from cuttings, it could have been domesticated even before the introduction of grafting“.[31] Domesticated almonds appear in the Early Bronze Age (3000–2000 BC), such as the archaeological sites of Numeira (Jordan),[6] or possibly earlier. Another well-known archaeological example of the almond is the fruit found in Tutankhamun‘s tomb in Egypt (c. 1325 BC), probably imported from the Levant.[31] An article on almond tree cultivation in Spain is brought down in Ibn al-‘Awwam‘s 12th-century agricultural work, Book on Agriculture.[36]
Of the European countries that the Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh reported as cultivating almonds, Germany[37] is the northernmost, though the domesticated form can be found as far north as Iceland.[38]
Varieties
Almond trees are small to medium-sized but commercial cultivars can be grafted onto a different root-stock to produce smaller trees. Varieties include:
Nonpareil – originates in the 1800s. A large tree that produces large, smooth, thin-shelled almonds with 60–65% edible kernel per nut. Requires pollination from other almond varieties for good nut production.[39]
Tuono – originates in Italy. Has thicker, hairier shells with only 32% of edible kernel per nut. The thicker shell gives some protection from pests such as the navel orangeworm. Does not require pollination by other almond varieties.[39]
Mariana – used as a rootstock to result in smaller trees
The most widely planted varieties of almond are self-incompatible; hence these trees require pollen from a tree with different genetic characters to produce seeds. Almond orchards therefore must grow mixtures of almond varieties. In addition, the pollen is transferred from flower to flower by insects; therefore commercial growers must ensure there are enough insects to perform this task.[41] The large scale of almond production in the U.S. creates a significant problem of providing enough pollinating insects. Additional pollinating insects are therefore brought to the trees. The pollination of California’s almonds is the largest annual managed pollination event in the world, with over 1 million hives (nearly half of all beehives in the US) being brought to the almond orchards each February.[4][42]
Much of the supply of bees is managed by pollination brokers, who contract with migratory beekeepers from at least 49 states for the event. This business was heavily affected by colony collapse disorder at the turn of the 21st century, causing a nationwide shortage of honey bees and increasing the price of insect pollination. To partially protect almond growers from these costs, researchers at the Agricultural Research Service, part of the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), developed self-pollinating almond trees that combine this character with quality characters such as a flavour and yield.[39] Self-pollinating almond varieties exist, but they lack some commercial characters. However, through natural hybridisation between different almond varieties, a new variety that was self-pollinating with a high yield of commercial quality nuts was produced.
Almond production in California is concentrated mainly in the Central Valley,[45] where the mild climate, rich soil, abundant sunshine and water supply make for ideal growing conditions. Due to the persistent droughts in California in the early 21st century, it became more difficult to raise almonds in a sustainable manner.[46][42] The issue is complex because of the high amount of water needed to produce almonds: a single almond requires roughly 1.1 US gallons (0.92 imperial gallons; 4.2 litres) of water to grow properly.[45][46][47] Regulations related to water supplies are changing so some growers have destroyed their current almond orchards to replace with either younger trees or a different crop such as pistachio that needs less water.[48]
Almond tree with blossoming flowers, Valley of Elah, Israel
In 2022, world production of almonds was 3.6 million tonnes, led by the United States (table). Secondary producers were Australia and Spain.
United States
In the United States, production is concentrated in California where 400,000 ha (1,000,000 acres) and six different almond varieties were under cultivation in 2017, with a yield of 2.25 billion pounds (1.02 billion kilograms) of shelled almonds.[52] California production is marked by a period of intense pollination during late winter by rented commercial bees transported by truck across the U.S. to almond groves, requiring more than half of the total U.S. commercial honeybee population.[53] The value of total U.S. exports of shelled almonds in 2016 was $3.2 billion.[54]
All commercially grown almonds sold as food in the U.S. are sweet cultivars. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration reported in 2010 that some fractions of imported sweet almonds were contaminated with bitter almonds, which contain cyanide.[55]
Spain has diverse commercial cultivars of almonds grown in Catalonia, Valencia, Murcia, Andalusia, and Aragón regions, and the Balearic Islands.[58] Production in 2016 declined 2% nationally compared to 2015 production data.[58]
The almond cultivar ‘Marcona’ is recognisably different from other almonds and is marketed by name.[59] The kernel is short, round, relatively sweet, and delicate in texture. Its origin is unknown and has been grown in Spain for a long time; the tree is very productive, and the shell of the nut is hard.[59]
Toxicity
Bitter almonds contain 42 times higher amounts of cyanide than the trace levels found in sweet almonds.[21] Extract of bitter almond was once used medicinally but even in small doses, effects are severe or lethal, especially in children; the cyanide must be removed before consumption.[21] The acute oral lethal dose of cyanide for adult humans is reported to be 0.5–3.5 mg/kg (0.2–1.6 mg/lb) of body weight (approximately 50 bitter almonds), so that for children consuming 5–10 bitter almonds may be fatal.[21] Symptoms of eating such almonds include vertigo and other typical cyanide poisoning effects.[55]
Almonds are susceptible to aflatoxin-producing moulds.[61] Aflatoxins are potent carcinogenic chemicals produced by moulds such as Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus.[62] The mould contamination may occur from soil, previously infested almonds, and almond pests such as navel-orange worm. High levels of mould growth typically appear as grey to black filament-like growth. It is unsafe to eat mould-infected tree nuts.
Some countries have strict limits on allowable levels of aflatoxin contamination of almonds and require adequate testing before the nuts can be marketed to their citizens. The European Union, for example, introduced a requirement since 2007 that all almond shipments to the EU be tested for aflatoxin. If aflatoxin does not meet the strict safety regulations, the entire consignment may be reprocessed to eliminate the aflatoxin or it must be destroyed.[63][64]
Breeding programs have found the high shell-seal trait.[40] High shell-seal provides resistance against these Aspergillus species and so against the development of their toxins.[40]
Mandatory pasteurisation in California
After tracing cases of salmonellosis to almonds, the USDA approved a proposal by the Almond Board of California to pasteurise almonds sold to the public. After publishing the rule in March 2007, the almond pasteurisation program became mandatory for California companies effective 1 September 2007.[65] Raw, untreated California almonds have not been available in the U.S. since then.
California almonds labeled “raw” must be steam-pasteurised or chemically treated with propylene oxide (PPO). This does not apply to imported almonds[66] or almonds sold from the grower directly to the consumer in small quantities.[67] The treatment also is not required for raw almonds sold for export outside of North America.
The Almond Board of California states: “PPO residue dissipates after treatment”. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency has reported: “Propylene oxide has been detected in fumigated food products; consumption of contaminated food is another possible route of exposure”. PPO is classified as Group 2B (“possibly carcinogenic to humans”).[68]
The USDA-approved marketing order was challenged in court by organic farmers organised by the Cornucopia Institute, a Wisconsin-based farm policy research group which filed a lawsuit in September 2008. According to the institute, this almond marketing order has imposed significant financial burdens on small-scale and organic growers and damaged domestic almond markets. A federal judge dismissed the lawsuit in early 2009 on procedural grounds. In August 2010, a federal appeals court ruled that the farmers have a right to appeal the USDA regulation. In March 2013, the court vacated the suit on the basis that the objections should have been raised in 2007 when the regulation was first proposed.[69]
While the almond is often eaten on its own, raw or toasted, it is also a component of various dishes. Almonds are available in many forms, such as whole, slivered, and ground into flour. Almond pieces around 2–3 millimetres (1⁄16–1⁄8 in) in size, called “nibs”, are used for special purposes such as decoration.[76]
A wide range of classic sweets feature almonds as a central ingredient. Marzipan was developed in the Middle Ages. Since the 19th century almonds have been used to make bread, almond butter, cakes and puddings, candied confections, almond cream-filled pastries, nougat, cookies (macaroons, biscotti and qurabiya), and cakes (financiers, Esterházy torte), and other sweets and desserts.[77]
The young, developing fruit of the almond tree can be eaten whole (green almonds) when they are still green and fleshy on the outside and the inner shell has not yet hardened. The fruit is somewhat sour, but is a popular snack in parts of the Middle East, eaten dipped in salt to balance the sour taste. Also in the Middle East they are often eaten with dates. They are available only from mid-April to mid-June in the Northern Hemisphere; pickling or brining extends the fruit’s shelf life.
In French cuisine, alternating layers of almond and hazelnut meringue are used to make the dessert dacquoise. Pithivier is one of many almond cream-filled pastries.
In Germany, Easter bread called Deutsches Osterbrot is baked with raisins and almonds.
In Greece almond flour is used to make amygdalopita, a glyka tapsiou dessert cake baking in a tray. Almonds are used for kourabiedes, a Greek version of the traditional quarabiya almond biscuits. A soft drink known as soumada is made from almonds in various regions.
In Iran, green almonds are dipped in sea salt and eaten as snacks on street markets; they are called chaqale bâdam. Candied almonds called noghl are served alongside tea and coffee. Also, sweet almonds are used to prepare special food for babies, named harire badam. Almonds are added to some foods, cookies, and desserts, or are used to decorate foods. People in Iran consume roasted nuts for special events, for example, during New Year (Nowruz) parties.
In Italy, colomba di Pasqua is a traditional Easter cake made with almonds. Bitter almonds are the base for amaretti cookies, a common dessert. Almonds are also a common choice as the nuts to include in torrone.
In Morocco, almonds in the form of sweet almond paste are the main ingredient in pastry fillings, and several other desserts. Fried blanched whole almonds are also used to decorate sweet tajines such as lamb with prunes. Southwestern Berber regions of Essaouira and Souss are also known for amlou, a spread made of almond paste, argan oil, and honey. Almond paste is also mixed with toasted flour and among others, honey, olive oil or butter, anise, fennel, sesame seeds, and cinnamon to make sellou (also called zamita in Meknes or slilou in Marrakech), a sweet snack known for its long shelf life and high nutritive value.
InIndian cuisine, almonds are the base ingredients of pasanda-style and Mughlaicurries. Badam halva is a sweet made from almonds with added colouring. Almond flakes are added to many sweets (such as sohan barfi), and are usually visible sticking to the outer surface. Almonds form the base of various drinks which are supposed to have cooling properties. Almond sherbet or sherbet-e-badaam, is a common summer drink. Almonds are also sold as a snack with added salt.
In Israel almonds are used as a topping for tahini cookies or eaten as a snack.
In Spain Marcona almonds are usually toasted in oil and lightly salted. They are used by Spanish confectioners to prepare a sweet called turrón.
Almonds can be processed into a milk substitute called almond milk; the nut’s soft texture, mild flavour, and light colouring (when skinned) make for an efficient analog to dairy, and a soy-free choice for lactose intolerant people and vegans. Raw, blanched, and lightly toasted almonds work well for different production techniques, some of which are similar to that of soy milk and some of which use no heat, resulting in raw milk.
Almond milk, along with almond butter and almond oil, are versatile products used in both sweet and savoury dishes.
In Moroccan cuisine, sharbat billooz, a common beverage, is made by blending blanched almonds with milk, sugar and other flavourings.[80]
Flour and skins
Almond flour or ground almond meal combined with sugar or honey as marzipan is often used as a gluten-free alternative to wheat flour in cooking and baking.[81]
Due to the cyanide found in bitter almonds, modern syrups generally are produced only from sweet almonds. Such syrup products do not contain significant levels of hydrocyanic acid, so are generally considered safe for human consumption.[21]
When almond oil is analyzed separately and expressed per 100 grams as a reference mass, the oil provides 3,700 kJ (884 kcal) of food energy, 8 grams of saturated fat (81% of which is palmitic acid), 70 grams of oleic acid, and 17 grams of linoleic acid (oil table).
Oleum amygdalae, the fixed oil, is prepared from either sweet or bitter almonds, and is a glyceryl oleate with a slight odour and a nutty taste. It is almost insoluble in alcohol but readily soluble in chloroform or ether. Almond oil is obtained from the dried kernel of almonds.[87] Sweet almond oil is used as a carrier oil in aromatherapy and cosmetics while bitter almond oil, containing benzaldehyde, is used as a food flavouring and in perfume.[41]
The almond is highly revered in some cultures. The tree originated in the Middle East. In the Bible, the almond is mentioned ten times, beginning with Genesis 43:11, where it is described as “among the best of fruits”. In Numbers 17, Levi is chosen from the other tribes of Israel by Aaron’s rod, which brought forth almond flowers. The almond blossom supplied a model for the menorah which stood in the Holy Temple, “Three cups, shaped like almond blossoms, were on one branch, with a knob and a flower; and three cups, shaped like almond blossoms, were on the other … on the candlestick itself were four cups, shaped like almond blossoms, with its knobs and flowers” (Exodus 25:33–34; 37:19–20). Many Sephardic Jews give five almonds to each guest before special occasions like weddings.[89]
Similarly, Christian symbolism often uses almond branches as a symbol of the virgin birth of Jesus; paintings and icons often include almond-shaped haloes encircling the Christ Child and as a symbol of Mary. The word “luz”, which appears in Genesis 30:37, sometimes translated as “hazel“, may actually be derived from the Aramaic name for almond (Luz), and is translated as such in the New International Version and other versions of the Bible.[90] The Arabic name for almond is لوز “lauz” or “lūz”. In some parts of the Levant and North Africa, it is pronounced “loz”, which is very close to its Aramaic origin.
The Entrance of the flower (La entrada de la flor) is an event celebrated on 1 February in Torrent, Spain, in which the clavarios and members of the Confrerie of the Mother of God deliver a branch of the first-blooming almond-tree to the Virgin.[91]
China
United States
Iran
Turkey
Mexico
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